White Gold: the white slaves of Islam

The term *”White Slaves of Islam”* refers to the historical practice of enslaving Europeans by Islamic powers, particularly between the 16th and 19th centuries. Although this form of slavery is less widely known than the transatlantic slave trade, it profoundly impacted European and Mediterranean societies. Much of this slavery was the result of piracy and coastal raids, especially by the infamous Barbary Corsairs, who operated from the North African coast—modern-day Morocco, Algeria, Tunisia, and Libya—and through Ottoman conquests.

White Gold: the white slaves of Islam

During the Ottoman Empire’s dominance and the rise of pirate states in North Africa, Christian Europeans were frequently captured in naval raids. These raids, known as *Barbary raids*, targeted ships and coastal towns, particularly in Southern Europe. Victims were taken to North African cities like Algiers, Tunis, and Tripoli, where they were sold in bustling slave markets. Coastal communities from Southern France, Spain, Italy, Greece, and even Iceland and the British Isles constantly feared such attacks.

Historical estimates suggest that between the 16th and 19th centuries, hundreds of thousands, possibly up to a million Europeans, were enslaved by the Barbary pirates. Both men and women were captured. Men were often forced into hard labour, working in quarries or construction or as oarsmen on galleys. At the same time, women were frequently sold as domestic servants or forced into harems.

The Barbary corsairs, under the protection of local rulers in North Africa, particularly in Algiers, Tunis, and Tripoli, considered these raids legitimate under Islamic law, as they viewed non-Muslims, especially Christians, as acceptable targets. The Ottoman Empire indirectly supported the Barbary states, and the pirates often operated under their protection, acting in their interests. The Barbary corsairs were feared for their efficiency and brutality, wreaking terror across Southern Europe as they seized ships and raided coastal towns.

White Gold: the white slaves of Islam
British captain witnessing the miseries of Christian slaves
White Gold: the white slaves of Islam
The Barbary Coast.
White Gold: the white slaves of Islam

There was considerable economic incentive behind these raids. Wealthy captives could be ransomed for vast sums, while less fortunate victims were sold into lifelong servitude. Religious orders, particularly Catholic groups like the Trinitarians and Mercedarians, played a critical role in collecting ransoms and redeeming Christian slaves from Muslim lands. However, those who could not be ransomed remained in brutal captivity, enduring harsh conditions for the remainder of their lives.

Slavery in the Islamic world was not limited to Europeans; it extended to Africans, Slavs, and other ethnic groups. However, the practice of enslaving “white” Europeans had a unique impact on the socio-political dynamics between Christian Europe and the Muslim world. In many parts of the Ottoman Empire, particularly in Constantinople (now Istanbul), white slaves were highly valued. Through the *devşirme* system, young Christian boys from conquered territories were captured or levied, forcibly converted to Islam, and trained as soldiers or administrators. These boys could rise to prominent positions, such as the elite military corps known as the Janissaries. Yet not all captives experienced such fortune; many were subjected to menial labour or found their way into slave markets across the empire.

The threat of Barbary piracy significantly influenced European coastal defences, trade routes, and diplomacy. Coastal communities were constantly at risk. European states were often compelled to negotiate treaties or pay tribute to avoid pirate attacks. Some European powers, however, responded with military force. The 1816 Bombardment of Algiers, led by a British-Dutch fleet, was one such effort to compel the Barbary states to end their practice of enslaving Europeans.

White Gold: the white slaves of Islam
British sailors boarding an Algerian pirate ship

The Barbary slave trade persisted into the early 19th century. Still, it was eventually curtailed due to the growing naval power of European states and the rise of abolitionist movements. The decline of the Ottoman Empire and the colonisation of North Africa by European powers, such as France’s conquest of Algeria in 1830, also contributed to the collapse of Barbary piracy and the end of white slavery in the region.

The legacy of European enslavement by Barbary pirates is far-reaching, leaving a lasting mark on both European and North African histories. In Europe, it fuelled anti-Islamic sentiments and reinforced the perception of the Muslim *”Other”*. This is reflected in the literature and art of the period, particularly in Southern Europe, where the fear and trauma of piracy and enslavement were deeply ingrained in the cultural psyche. In North Africa, the profits from slave trading and piracy played a significant role in shaping the economic and social structures of the time.

White Gold: the white slaves of Islam

The history of European enslavement by Islamic powers highlights the complex and global nature of slavery, which transcended race, geography, and culture. While the transatlantic slave trade dominates much of modern discourse on slavery, the enslavement of Europeans in the Islamic world remains an important and under-explored chapter in the broader history of human bondage. It serves as a reminder that slavery was a widespread institution that affected people from diverse backgrounds. The “White Slaves of Islam” story is a powerful testament to the regular violent interactions between Europe and the Islamic world during the early modern period. It is a lesser known yet significant part of slavery’s global history, illustrating the fluid nature of power, religion, and exploitation during a turbulent era. This chapter deserves greater recognition in our understanding of human history, as it sheds light on the shared and painful legacy of slavery that has shaped the world we know today.

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